EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Education in the United States is mainly provided by the public
sector, with control and funding coming from three levels:
federal, state, and local. School attendance is mandatory and
nearly universal at the primary and secondary levels (known
inside the United States as the elementary and high school
levels). At these levels, school curricula, funding, teaching,
and other policies are set through locally elected school boards
with jurisdiction over school districts. School districts are
usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent
officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardized
testing decisions are usually made by state governments.
The ages for compulsory education vary by state, beginning at
ages five to eight and ending at the ages of fourteen to
eighteen. A growing number of states are now requiring school
attendance until the age of 18.
Compulsory education requirements can generally be satisfied by
attending public schools, state-certified private schools, or an
approved home school program. In most public and private schools,
education is divided into three levels: elementary school, junior
high school (often called middle school), and high school. In
almost all schools at these levels, children are divided by age
groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten (followed by first
grade) for the youngest children in elementary school, up to
twelfth grade, which is the final year of high school. The exact
age range of students in these grade levels varies slightly from
area to area.
Post-secondary education, better known as "college" in the United
States, is generally governed separately from the elementary and
high school system, and is described in a separate section
below.
In the year 2000, there were 76.6 million students enrolled in
schools from kindergarten through graduate schools. Of these, 72
percent aged 12 to 17 were judged academically "on track" for
their age (enrolled in school at or above grade level). Of those
enrolled in compulsory education, 5.2 million (10.4 percent) were
attending private schools. Among the country's adult population,
over 85 percent have completed high school and 27 percent have
received a bachelor's degree or higher. The average salary for
college or university graduates is greater than $51,000,
exceeding the national average of those without a high school
diploma by more than $23,000, according to a 2005 study by the
U.S. Census Bureau. While the United States presently leads the
world with over 5,000 Montessori schools, the People's Republic
of China (PRC) has expressed ambitions to replace much of their
school system with the Montessori method's pedagogy. As part of a
trial run towards achieving this objective, the PRC Minister of
Education called for 1,000 teachers to receive certification from
the Association Montessori Internationale in 2007. The United
States Department of Education has no formal plans to compete
against China on similar initiatives at this time.
The country has a reading literacy rate at 98% of the population
over age 15, while ranking below average in science and
mathematics understanding compared to other developed countries.
In 2008, there was a 77% graduation rate from high school, below
most developed countries.
The poor performance has pushed public and private efforts such
as the No Child Left Behind Act. In addition, the ratio of
college-educated adults entering the workforce to general
population (33%) is slightly below the mean of other developed
countries (35%) and rate of participation of the labor force in
continuing education is high. A 2000s study by Jon Miller of
Michigan State University concluded that "A slightly higher
proportion of American adults qualify as scientifically literate
than European or Japanese adults".
SCHOOL GRADES
In the U.S. the first year of compulsory schooling begins with
children at the age of five or six. Children are then placed in
year groups known as grades, beginning with first grade and
culminating in twelfth grade. The U.S. uses ordinal numbers for
naming grades, unlike Canada and Australia where cardinal numbers
are preferred. Thus, Americans are more likely to say "First
Grade" rather than "Grade One". Typical ages and grade groupings
in public and private schools may be found through the U.S.
Department of Education. Many different variations exist across
the country.
| Level/Grade | Typical age |
|---|---|
| Preschool | |
| Various optional programs, such as Head Start | Under 6 |
| Pre-Kindergarten | 4-5 |
| Kindergarten | 5-6 |
| Elementary School | |
| 1st Grade | 6-7 |
| 2nd Grade | 7-8 |
| 3rd Grade | 8-9 |
| 4th Grade | 9-10 |
| 5th Grade | 10-11 |
| Middle school | |
| 6th Grade | 11-12 |
| 7th Grade | 12-13 |
| 8th Grade | 13-14 |
| High school | |
| 9th Grade (Freshman year) | 14-15 |
| 10th Grade (Sophomore year) | 15-16 |
| 11th Grade (Junior year) | 16-17 |
| 12th Grade (Senior year) | 17-18 |
| Post-secondary education | |
| Undergraduate education (College or University) |
ages vary (usually four years, referred to as Freshman, Sophomore, Junior and Senior years) |
| Vocational education | ages vary |
| Graduate education | |
| Adult education | |
PRESCHOOL
There are no mandatory public preschool or crèche (day
care) programs in the United States. The federal government funds
the Head Start preschool program for poor children, but most
families are on their own with regard to finding a preschool or
child care.
In the large cities, there are sometimes upper-class preschools
catering to the children of the wealthy. Because some upper-class
families see these schools as the first step toward the Ivy
League, there are even counselors who specialize in assisting
parents and their toddlers through the preschool admissions
process.
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY
EDUCATION
Schooling is compulsory for all children in the United States,
but the age range for which school attendance is required varies
from state to state. Most children begin primary education with
kindergarten at the age of 5 or 6, depending upon eligibility
requirements in their district, and complete their secondary
education at the age of 18 when their senior year of high school
ends. Typically, mandatory education starts with first grade and
many times in kindergarten. Some states allow students to leave
school at age 16, before finishing high school; other states
require students to stay in school until age 18.
Most parents send their children to either a public or private
institution. According to government data, one-tenth of students
are enrolled in private schools. Approximately 85% of students
enter the public schools, largely because they are "free" (tax
burdens by school districts vary from area to area). Most
students attend school for around eight hours per day, and
usually anywhere from 175 to 185 days per year. Most schools have
a summer break period for about two and half months from June
through August. This break is much longer than the one students
in many other nations receive. Originally, "summer vacation", as
it is colloquially called, allowed students to participate in the
harvest period during the summer. However, this is now relatively
unnecessary and remains largely by tradition; it also has immense
popular support.
Parents may also choose to educate their own children at home;
1.7% of children are educated in this manner. Proponents of home
education invoke parental responsibility and the classical
liberal arguments for personal freedom from government intrusion.
Few proponents advocate that homeschooling should be the dominant
educational policy. Most homeschooling advocates are wary of the
established educational institutions for various reasons. Some
are religious conservatives who see nonreligious education as
contrary to their moral or religious systems. Others feel that
they can more effectively tailor a curriculum to suit an
individual student's academic strengths and weaknesses,
especially those with learning disabilities. Still others feel
that the negative social pressures of schools (such as bullying,
drugs, crime, and other school-related problems) are detrimental
to a child's proper development. Parents often form groups to
help each other in the homeschooling process, and may even assign
classes to different parents, similar to public and private
schools.
Opposition to homeschooling comes from varied sources, including
teachers' organizations and school districts. The National
Education Association, the largest labor union in the United
States, has been particularly vocal in the past. Opponents'
stated concerns fall into several broad categories, including
fears of poor academic quality, loss of income for the schools,
and religious or social extremism, or lack of socialization with
others.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
"Elementary school", "grade school", "grammar school", and
"public school" are all interchangeable names for schools that
begin with kindergarten or first grade and end either with fifth
or sixth grade. Elementary school provides a common daily routine
for all students except the most disadvantaged (those with
learning disabilities, mental illnesses, or those students who do
not speak English). Sometimes gifted or advanced students receive
separate education as well. Students do not choose a course
structure and often remain in one or two classrooms throughout
the school day, with the exceptions of physical education ("P.E."
or "gym"), music, and/or art classes.
Education is relatively not standardized at this level. Teachers,
most of whom are women, receive a book to give to the students
for each subject and brief overviews of what they are expected to
teach. In general, a student learns basic arithmetic and
sometimes rudimentary algebra in mathematics, English proficiency
(such as basic grammar, spelling, and vocabulary), and
fundamentals of other subjects.
Social studies and sciences are often underdeveloped, largely
because most elementary teachers have a degree in English or
education. Social studies may include basic events and concepts
in American and world history and, in some places, state or local
history; science varies widely.
MIDDLE SCHOOL
"Middle school", "junior high school", and "intermediate school"
are all interchangeable names for schools that begin in 6th or
7th grade and end in 8th, though they sometimes include 9th grade
as well. The term "junior high school" and the arrangement
beginning with 7th grade are becoming less common. Intermediate
schooling in some locations is known as something that precedes
the middle school and follows the elementary schooling.
At this time students begin to enroll in class schedules where
they take classes from several teachers in a given day, unlike in
elementary school where most classes are taught by the same
teacher. The classes are usually a strict set of science, math,
English, and social science courses, interspersed with a reading
and/or technology class. Every year from kindergarten through
ninth grade usually includes a mandatory physical education
(P.E.) class. Student-chosen courses, known as electives, are
generally limited to only one or two classes.
HIGH SCHOOL
High school runs from grades 9 through 12. Some school districts
deviate from this formula. The most widely seen difference is to
include 9th grade in middle school, though it is a relatively old
practice which is disappearing. Also, many districts will use an
older high school as a separate campus for 9th grade, allowing
these students to adjust to a high school environment. In high
school, students obtain much more control of their education and
often may even choose their core classes.
BASIC CURRICULAR STRUCTURE
Most students in the United States, unlike their counterparts in
other developed nations, do not begin to specialize into a narrow
field of study until their second year of college. However, some
schools encourage students to take electives in the areas they
are considering for a career. Generally, at the high school
level, they take a broad variety of classes without special
emphasis. The curriculum varies widely in quality and rigidity;
for example, some states consider 70 (on a 100-point scale) to be
a passing grade, while others consider it to be as low as 60 or
as high as 75.
The following are the typical minimum course sequences that one
must take in order to obtain a high school diploma; they are not
indicative of the necessary minimum courses or course rigor
required for attending college in the United States:
- Science (biology, chemistry, and physics)
- Mathematics (usually three years minimum, including algebra, geometry, algebra II, and/or precalculus/trigonometry)
- English (four years)
- Social Science (various history, government, and economics courses, always including American history)
- Physical education (at least one year)
Many states require a "Health" course in which students learn
anatomy, nutrition, and first aid; the basic concepts of
sexuality and birth control; and why to avoid substances like
illegal drugs, cigarettes, and alcohol.
ELECTIVES
High schools offer a wide variety of elective courses, although
the availability of such courses depends upon each particular
school's financial situation.
Common types of electives include:
- Visual arts (drawing, sculpture, painting, photography, film)
- Performing Arts (drama, band, chorus, orchestra, dance)
- Technology education ("Shop"; woodworking, metalworking, automobile repair, robotics)
- Computers (word processing, programming, graphic design)
- Athletics (football, baseball, basketball, track and field, swimming, gymnastics, water polo, soccer)
- Publishing (journalism/student newspaper, yearbook, literary magazine)
- Foreign languages (French, German, and Spanish are common; Chinese, Latin, Greek and Japanese are less common)
ADDITIONAL OPTIONS FOR GIFTED
STUDENTS
Not all schools require the same rigor of course work. Most high
and middle schools offer "honors" or "gifted" classes for
motivated and gifted students, where the quality of education is
usually higher and more demanding. There are also specialized
magnet schools with competitive entrance requirements.
If funds are available, a high school may provide Advanced
Placement or International Baccalaureate courses, which are
special forms of honors classes. AP or IB courses are usually
taken during the third or fourth years of high school, either as
a replacement for a typical third-year course (e.g., taking AP
U.S. History as a replacement for standard U.S. History), a
refresher of an earlier course (e.g., taking AP Biology in the
fourth year even though one already took Biology in the first
year), or simply as a way to study something interesting during
one's senior year (e.g., AP Economics).
Most postsecondary institutions take AP or IB exam results into
consideration in the admissions process. Because AP and IB
courses are supposed to be the equivalent of the first year of
college courses, postsecondary institutions may grant unit credit
which enables students to graduate early. Other institutions use
examinations for placement purposes only: students are exempted
from introductory course work but may not receive credit towards
a concentration, degree, or core requirement. Institutions vary
in the selection of examinations they accept and the scores they
require to grant credit or placement, with more elite
institutions tending to accept fewer examinations and requiring
higher scoring. Both public schools and private schools in
wealthy neighborhoods are able to provide many more AP and IB
course options than impoverished inner-city high schools, and
this difference is seen as a major cause of the differing
outcomes for their graduates.
Also, in states with well-developed community college systems,
there are often mechanisms by which gifted students may seek
permission from their school district to attend community college
courses full time during the summer, and during weekends and
evenings during the school year. The units earned this way can
often be transferred to one's university, and can facilitate
early graduation. Early college entrance programs are a step
further, with students enrolling as freshmen at a
younger-than-traditional age.
GRADING SCALE
In schools in the United States children are continually assessed
throughout the school year by their teachers, and report cards
are issued to parents at varying intervals. Generally the scores
for individual assignments and tests are recorded for each
student in a grade book, along with the maximum number of points
for each assignment. At any time, the total number of points for
a student when divided by the total number of possible points
produces a percent grade which can be translated to a letter
grade. Letter grades are often but not always used on report
cards at the end of a marking period, although the current grade
may be available at other times (particularly when an electronic
grade book connected to an online service is in use). Although
grading scales usually differ from school to school, the grade
scale which seems to be most common is as follows: A+ (97-100), A
(93-96), A- (90-92), B+ (87-89), B (83-86), B- (80-82), C+
(77-79), C (73-76), C- (70-72), D+ (67-69), D (63-66), D-
(60-62), and below 60 percent (E, N, U, or F). The grading is
based on a scale of 0-100 or a percentile. Note that in some
jurisdictions, Texas or Virginia as an example, the "D" grade (or
that below 70) is considered a failing grade. In other
jurisdictions, such as Hawaii, a "D" grade is considered passing
in certain classes, and failing in others.
STANDARDIZED TESTING
Under the No Child Left Behind Act, all American states must test
students in public schools statewide to ensure that they are
achieving the desired level of minimum education, such as on the
Regents Examinations in New York, or the Florida Comprehensive
Assessment Test (FCAT), and the Massachusetts Comprehensive
Assessment System (MCAS); students being educated at home or in
private schools are not included. The Act also requires that
students and schools show "adequate yearly progress." This means
they must show some improvement each year.
Although these tests may have revealed the results of student
learning, they may have little value to help strengthen the
students' academic weakness. For example, in most states, the
results of the testing would not be known until six months later.
At that time, the students may have been promoted to the next
grade or might be entering a new school. The students are not
given a chance to review the questions and their own answers but
their percentile of the test results are compared with their own
peers. To address this situation many school districts have
implemented MAP. Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) tests are
state-aligned computerized adaptive assessments that measure the
instructional level of each student's growth over time.
This research based testing allows elementary school teachers to
have ongoing access to student progress. Teachers using this
system can identify strengths and weaknesses of individual
students and remediate where necessary. When a student fails to
make adequate yearly progress, No Child Left Behind mandates that
remediation through summer school and/or tutoring be made
available to a student in need of extra help.
During high school, students (usually in 11th grade) may take one
or more standardized tests depending on their postsecondary
education preferences and their local graduation requirements. In
theory, these tests evaluate the overall level of knowledge and
learning aptitude of the students. The SAT and ACT are the most
common standardized tests that students take when applying to
college. A student may take the SAT, ACT, or both depending upon
the post-secondary institutions the student plans to apply to for
admission. Most competitive schools also require two or three SAT
Subject Tests, (formerly known as SAT IIs), which are shorter
exams that focus strictly on a particular subject matter.
However, all these tests serve little to no purpose for students
who do not move on to post-secondary education, so they can
usually be skipped without affecting one's ability to
graduate.
EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Many students, mostly in middle and high schools, participate in
extracurricular activities. These activities can extend to large
amounts of time outside the normal school day; homeschooled
students, however, are not normally allowed to participate.
Student participation in sports programs, drill teams, bands, and
spirit groups can amount to hours of practices and performances.
Most states have organizations which develop rules for
competition between groups. These organizations are usually
forced to implement time limits on hours practiced as a
prerequisite for participation.
Sports programs and their related games, especially football
and/or basketball, are major events for American students and for
larger schools can be a major source of funds for school
districts. Schools may sell "spirit" shirts to wear to games;
school stadiums and gymnasiums are often filled to capacity, even
for nonsporting competitions.
High school athletic competitions often generate intense interest
in the community, though a greater prevalence is seen in rural
areas. Elite high school athletes command significant media
attention and fierce competition between university athletic
programs for their skills. Many state high school championship
tournaments in these two sports are attended by tens of thousands
each year.
In addition to sports, many nonathletic extracurricular
activities are usually present in American schools, both public
and private. Activities include student government, school
newspapers, and various academic groups such as writing clubs,
debate teams, quiz teams, club sports (not provided with the same
funds or privileges as other sports programs), peer groups, and
various other activities. Although individually such programs
might not be available in all schools, taken as a whole, these
programs are available to the vast majority of students.
EDUCATION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS
In the United States, education of the learning disabled, blind,
and deaf is structured to adhere as closely as possible to the
same experience received by normal students. Blind and deaf
students usually have separate classes in which they spend most
of their day, but may sit in on normal classes with guides or
interpreters. The learning disabled often attend for the same
amount of time as other students; however, they also usually
spend most of their day in separate classrooms, commonly known as
special education or special ed; here they often receive extra
instruction or perform easier work. The goal of these programs,
however, is to try and bring everyone up to the same standard and
provide equal opportunity to those students who are challenged.
Some students are identified early on as having dyslexia or being
significantly slower learners than other students. The federal
government supports the standards developed in the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004. The law
mandates that schools must accommodate students with disabilities
as defined by the act, and specifies methods for funding the
sometimes large costs of providing them with the necessary
facilities. Larger districts are often able to provide more
adequate and quality care for those with special needs.
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS
Unlike most other industrialized countries, the United States
does not have a centralized educational system on the national
scale. Thus, K-12 students in most areas have a choice between
free taxpayer-funded public schools and private schools.
Public school systems are supported by a combination of local,
state, and federal government funding. Because a large portion of
school revenues come from local property taxes, public schools
vary widely in the resources they have available per student.
Class size also varies significantly from one district to
another. Generally, school in more affluent areas are more highly
regarded. Curriculum decisions in public schools are made largely
at the local and state levels; the federal government has limited
influence. In most districts schools are run by a locally elected
school board. The school board appoints an official called the
superintendent of schools to manage the schools in the district.
The largest public school system in the United States is in New
York City, where more than one million students are taught in
1,200 separate public schools. Because of its immense size -
there are more students in the system than residents in eight US
states - the New York City public school system is nationally
influential in determining standards and materials like text
books.
All public school systems are required to provide an education
free of charge to everyone of school age in their districts. Not
every individual public school, however, is open to all
interested students. Large cities such as New York often have
"magnet schools" which cater to gifted students or to students
with special interests, such as science or performing arts.
Admission to some of these schools is highly competitive.
Private schools in the United States include parochial schools
affiliated with religious denominations, nonprofit independent
schools, and for-profit private schools. Private schools charge
varying rates depending on geographic location, the school's
expenses, and the availability of funding from sources other than
tuition. For example, some churches partially subsidize private
schools for their members. Some people have argued that when
their child attends a private school, they should be able to take
the funds which the public school no longer needs and apply that
money towards private school tuition in the form of vouchers;
this is the basis of the school choice movement.
Private schools have various purposes: Some cater to general
education students; others are for gifted students, for students
with learning disabilities or other special needs, or for
students with specific religious affiliations. Unlike public
school systems, private schools have no legal obligation to
accept any interested student. Admission to some private schools
is highly selective. Private schools also have the ability to
permanently expel persistently unruly students, a disciplinary
option not always legally available to public school systems.
The United States Department of Education released a statement
recently detailing the average cost per pupil in public and
private schools and found that the average public school cost was
approximately U.S. $7,200 per student while the average private
school cost per pupil was just U.S. $3,500. The Department of
Education also stated that less than 25% of private schools are
considered "elite", costing more than U.S. $10,000 a year. In
contrast, private schools in Moldova average around U.S. $500 per
year.
COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY
Post-secondary education in the United States is known as college
or university and commonly consists of four years of study at an
institution of higher learning. Like high school, the four
undergraduate grades are commonly called freshman, sophomore,
junior, and senior years (alternately called first year, second
year, etc.). Students traditionally apply to receive admission
into college, with varying difficulties of entrance. Schools
differ in their competitiveness and reputation; generally, the
most prestigious schools are private, rather than public.
Admissions criteria involve test scores (the SAT and ACT) and
class ranking or GPA, as well as extracurricular activities
performed prior to the application date. Also, many colleges
consider the rigor of previous courses taken along with the
grades earned. Certain test scores, class rank, or other
numerical factors hardly ever have absolute, required levels, but
often have a threshold below which admission is unlikely.
Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which
consists of satisfying university and class requirements to
achieve a bachelor's degree in a field of concentration known as
a major. (Some students enroll in double majors or "minor" in
another field of study.) The most common method consists of four
years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (BA), a Bachelor of
Science (BS), or sometimes (but rarely) another bachelor's degree
such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA), Bachelor of Engineering
(BEng,) or Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil.) Five-Year Professional
Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree
(BArch).
Unlike in the British model, degrees in law and medicine are not
offered at the undergraduate level and are completed as graduate
study after earning a bachelor's degree. Neither field specifies
or prefers any undergraduate major, though medicine has a set a
prerequisite courses that must be taken before enrollment.
Some students choose to attend a community college for two years
prior to further study at another college or university. In most
states, community colleges are operated either by a division of
the state university or by local special districts subject to
guidance from a state agency. Community colleges may award
Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree after
two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer
to a four-year college or university (after applying through a
similar admissions process as those applying directly to the
four-year institution, see articulation). Some community colleges
have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four-year
college, where the community college provides the first two years
of study and the university provides the remaining years of
study, sometimes all on one campus. The community college awards
the associate's degree, and the university awards the bachelor's
and master's degrees.
Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and
sometimes after several years of professional work, leads to a
more advanced degree such as a master's degree, which could be a
Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business
Administration (MBA), or other less common master's degrees such
as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts (MFA).
After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with
the completion of a master's degree, students may earn a Doctor
of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of
Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of
Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy, or
Doctor of Jurisprudence. Some programs, such as medicine, have
formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation like residency
and internship which must be completed after graduation and
before one is considered to be fully trained. Other professional
programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship
requirements after graduation (although law school graduates must
take the bar exam in order to legally practice law in nearly all
states).
Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student's
undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as
well as their score on a standardized entrance exam like the GRE
(graduate schools in general), the LSAT (law), the GMAT
(business), or the MCAT (medicine). Many graduate and law schools
do not require experience after earning a bachelor's degree to
enter their programs; however, business school candidates are
usually required to gain a few years of professional work
experience before applying. Only 8.9 percent of students ever
receive postgraduate degrees, and most, after obtaining their
bachelor's degree, proceed directly into the workforce.
COST
The vast majority of students (up to 70 percent) lack the
financial resources to pay tuition up front and must rely on
student loans and scholarships from their university, the federal
government, or a private lender. All but a few charity
institutions charge all students tuition, although scholarships
(both merit-based and need-based) are widely available.
Generally, private universities charge much higher tuition than
their public counterparts, which rely on state funds to make up
the difference. Because each state supports its own university
system with state taxes, most public universities charge much
higher rates for out-of-state students. Private universities are
generally considered to be of higher quality than public
universities, although there are many exceptions.
Annual undergraduate tuition varies widely from state to state,
and many additional fees apply. A typical year's tuition at a
public university (for residents of the state) is about U.S.
$5,000. Tuition for public school students from outside the state
is generally comparable to private school prices, although
students can generally get state residency after their first
year. Private schools are typically much higher, although prices
vary widely from "no-frills" private schools to highly
specialized technical institutes. Depending upon the type of
school and program, annual graduate program tuition can vary from
U.S. $15,000 to as high as U.S. $40,000. Note that these prices
do not include living expenses (rent, room/board, etc.) or
additional fees that schools add on such as "activities fees" or
health insurance. These fees, especially room and board, can
range from U.S. $6,000 to U.S. $12,000 per academic year
(assuming a single student without children).
College costs are rising at the same time that state
appropriations for aid are shrinking. This has led to debate over
funding at both the state and local levels. From 2002 to 2004
alone, tuition rates at public schools increased by just over 14
percent, largely due to dwindling state funding. A more moderate
increase of 6 percent occurred over the same period for private
schools.
THE STATUS LADDER
American college and university faculty, staff, alumni, students,
and applicants monitor rankings produced by magazines such as
U.S. News and World Report, Academic Ranking of World
Universities, test preparation services such as The Princeton
Review or another university itself such as the Top American
Research Universities by University of Florida TheCenter. These
rankings are based on factors like brand recognition, selectivity
in admissions, generosity of alumni donors, and volume of faculty
research.
In terms of brand recognition, the United States' most well-known
university is Harvard. Seemingly, Harvard alumni often gain
prominence in American business, education, and society; for this
reason, it has become entrenched in popular mind as America's
'top' school. Various Hollywood movies depict Harvard as the
ultimate example of the academic "ivory tower," (e.g., Legally
Blonde, Soul Man, The Paper Chase, etc.)
In the popular mind, approximately twenty-five institutions
compose the "top tier" of American higher learning. Most would
cite the eight universities that compose the Ivy League and a
small number of elite, private research universities (e.g.,
Caltech, the University of Chicago, Duke, Johns Hopkins, MIT,
Northwestern, Stanford, etc.) A small percentage of students who
apply to these schools gain admission. Many Americans would also
cite the "Little Ivies," a handful of elite liberal arts college
known for their high-quality instruction. These include Amherst,
Williams, Wesleyan, Swarthmore, etc. Others would cite all-female
institutions such as Wellesley and Smith, former members of the
"Seven Sisters."
This "ladder" is not absolute, however. Top public universities
(sometimes referred to as "Public Ivies"), such as the University
of California, Berkeley, the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
and the University of Virginia actually perform better than
various private universities in many measurements of graduate
education and research quality. Among engineering schools, Ivy
League universities are outranked by multiple public and other
private universities.
Each state in the United States maintains its own public
university system, which is always nonprofit. The State
University of New York and the California State University are
the largest public higher education systems in the United States;
SUNY is the largest system that includes community colleges,
while CSU is the largest without. Most areas also have private
institutions which may be for-profit or nonprofit. Unlike many
other nations, there are no public universities at the national
level outside of the military service academies. A few states
(like California and Minnesota) have two separate state
university systems. The faculty of the more prestigious system
are expected to conduct advanced cutting-edge research in
addition to teaching (e.g., University of California and
University of Minnesota), while the less prestigious is focused
on quality of teaching and producing the next generation of
teachers (e.g., California State University and MnSCU). The
second-tier university systems are often the descendants of
19th-century normal schools. Note that Texas has five
separate state university systems, the University of Texas
System, the Texas Tech University System, the Texas A & M
University System, the University of Houston System, and the
Texas State University System.
Prospective students applying to attend one of the five military
academies require, with limited exceptions, nomination by a
member of Congress. Like acceptance to "top tier" universities,
competition for these limited nominations is intense and must be
accompanied by superior scholastic achievement and evidence of
leadership potential.
Aside from these aforementioned schools, academic reputations vary
widely among the "middle-tier" of American schools, (and even
among academic departments within each of these schools.) Most
public and private institutions fall into this 'middle' range.
Some institutions feature honors colleges or other rigorous
programs that challenge academically exceptional students, who
might otherwise attend a "top-tier" college. Aware of the status
attached to the perception of the college that they attend,
students often apply to a range of schools. Some apply to a
relatively prestigious school with a low acceptance rate,
gambling on the chance of acceptance, and also apply to a "safety
school", to which they will certainly gain admission.
Low status institutions include community colleges. These are
primarily two-year public institutions, which individual states
usually require to accept all local residents who seek admission,
and offer associate's degrees or vocational certificate programs.
Many community colleges have relationships with four-year state
universities and colleges, (or even private universities, e.g.
Suffolk University,) that enable their students to transfer
relatively smoothly to these universities.
Regardless of perceived prestige, many institutions feature (at
least one) distinguished academic department, and most Americans
attend one of the 2,400 four-year colleges and universities, or
over 1,700 two-year colleges not included among the twenty-five
or so 'top-tier' institutions. For this reason (among others,)
America's higher education status ladder remains highly
controversial, and certainly not beyond reproach. For example,
prestigious Reed College famously refuses to participate in
institutional rankings, insisting that one cannot quantify the
qualitative.
CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION
ISSUES
Major educational issues in the United States center on
curriculum, funding, and control. Of critical importance, because
of its enormous implications on education and funding, is the No
Child Left Behind Act.
CURRICULUM ISSUES
Curriculum in the United States varies widely from district to
district. Not only do schools offer an incredible range of topics
and quality, but private schools may include religious classes as
mandatory for attendance (this also begets the problem of
government funding vouchers). This has produced camps
of argument over the standardization of curriculum and to what
degree. Some feel that schools should be nationalized and the
curriculum changed to a national standard. These same groups
often are advocates of standardized testing, which is mandated by
the No Child Left Behind Act. Aside from who controls the
curriculum, groups argue over the teaching of the English
language, evolution, and sex education.
A large issue facing the curriculum today is the use of the
English language in teaching. English is spoken by over 95% of
the nation, and there is a strong national tradition of upholding
English as the de facto official language. Some 9.7 million
children aged 5 to 17 primarily speak a language other than
English at home. Of those, about 1.3 million children speak
English "not well" or "not at all." While a few, mostly Hispanic,
groups want bilingual education, the majority of school districts
are attempting to use English as a Second Language (ESL) courses
to teach Spanish-speaking students English. In addition, many
feel there are threats to the "integrity" of the language itself.
For example, a growing number of African Americans are speaking a
dialect called African American Vernacular English (it is known
colloquially as Ebonics (a portmanteau of "ebony" and "phonics").
While it is not taught in any American schools, there has been
debate over its place in education.
In 1999 the School Board of the state of Kansas caused
controversy when it decided to eliminate testing of evolution in
its state assessment tests. This caused outrage among scientists
and average citizens alike, but was widely supported in Kansas.
However, intense media coverage and the national spotlight
convinced the board to eventually overturn the decision. Such
controversies have not abated. Not surprisingly, most scientific
observers stress the importance of evolution in the curriculum
and dislike the idea of intelligent design or creationist ideas
being included. Fundamentalist religious and "family values"
groups, on the other hand, stress the need to teach creationism
in the public schools. While a majority of Americans approve of
teaching evolution, a majority also support at least the mention
of intelligent design and/or creationism in the curriculum of
science courses.
Today, sex education ("sex ed") in the United States is
relatively underdeveloped. Because of the huge controversy over
the issue, many schools attempt to avoid the study as much as
possible in health classes. Contrary to popular depiction by the
media, there are few specifically sex education classes in
existence. Also, because President Bush has called for
abstinence-only sex education and has the power to withhold
funding, many schools are backing away from teaching or
instructing students in the use of birth control or
contraceptives.
However, most parents wants complete sex education in the
schools. The American people are heavily divided over the issue.
Many agree with the statement "Sex education in school makes it
easier for me to talk to my child about sexual issues", while a
similarly large proportion disagree with the statement that their
children are being exposed to "subjects I don't think my child
should be discussing." Also, only ten percent believe that their
children's sexual education class forces them to discuss sexual
issues "too early." On the other hand, half of the parents are
only "somewhat confident" that the values taught in their
children's sex ed classes are similar to those taught at home,
and 23 percent are less confident still.
FUNDING
Funding for schools in the United States is a delicate and muddy
issue. The current controversy stems much from the No Child Left
Behind Act. The Act gives the Department of Education the right
to withhold funding if it believes a school, district, or even a
state is not complying and is making no effort to comply.
However, federal funding accounts for little of the overall
funding schools receive. The vast majority comes from the state
government and from local property taxes. Various groups, many of
whom are teachers, constantly push for more funding. They point
to many different situations, such as the fact that in many
schools, teachers, especially those at the elementary level, must
supplement their supplies with purchases of their own.
Property taxes have been a problem for years; California
residents used their state constitution's clause for public
initiatives to enact limits on property tax increases by a direct
popular vote. Many communities across the country are dealing
with what has become a major issue. Many parents of private
school and homeschooled children have taken issue with the idea
of paying for an education their children are not receiving.
However, tax proponents point out that every person pays property
taxes for public education, not just parents of school-age
children. Indeed, without it schools would not have enough money
to remain open. Still, parents of students who go to private
schools want to use this money instead to fund their children's
private education. This is the foundation of the school voucher
movement.
One of the biggest debates in funding public schools is funding
by local taxes or state taxes. The federal government supplies
around 8.5% of the public school system funds, according to a
2005 report by the National Center for Education Statistics. The
remaining split between state and local governments averages 48.7
percent from states and 42.8 percent from local sources. However,
the division varies widely. In Hawaii local funds make up only
1.7 percent, while state sources account for nearly 90.1
percent.
At the college and university level, funding becomes an issue due
to the sheer complexity of gaining it. Some of the reason for the
confusion at the college/university level in the United States is
that student loan funding is split in half; half is managed by
the Department of Education directly, called the Federal Direct
Student Loan Program (FDSLP). The other half is managed by
commercial entities such as banks, credit unions, and financial
services firms such as Sallie Mae, under the Federal Family
Education Loan Program (FFELP). Some schools accept only FFELP
loans; others accept only FDSLP. Still others accept both, and a
few schools will not accept either, in which case students must
seek out private alternatives for student loans.
CONTROL
There is some debate about where control for education actually
lies. Education is not mentioned in the constitution of the
United States. In the current situation, the state and national
governments have a power-sharing arrangement, with the states
exercising most of the control. Like other arrangements between
the two, the federal government uses the threat of decreased
funding to enforce laws pertaining to education. Furthermore,
within each state there are different types of control. Some
states have a statewide school system, while others delegate
power to county, city or township-level school boards. However,
under the Bush administration, initiatives such as the No Child
Left Behind Act have attempted to assert more central control in
a heavily decentralized system.
The U.S. federal government exercises its control through the
U.S. Department of Education. School accreditation decisions are
made by voluntary regional associations. Schools in the 50 states
and the District of Columbia teach in English, while schools in
the territory of Puerto Rico teach in Spanish. Nonprofit private
schools are widespread, are largely independent of the
government, and include secular as well as parochial schools.
COMPETITIVENESS
The national results in international comparisons have often been
below the average of developed countries. In OECD's Programme for
International Student Assessment 2003, 15 year olds ranked 24th
of 38 in mathematics, 19th of 38 in science, 12th of 38 in
reading, and 26th of 38 in problem solving. In addition, many
business leaders have expressed concerns that the quality of
education given in the US system is generally below acceptable
standards, and should be adapted in order to conform to the needs
of an evolving world . Bill Gates has famously stated that the
American high school is "obsolete". However, America continues to
develop the well rounded student and does not specialize students
into their strongest areas of intelligence until college, where
the student may decide what their specialty may be.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
The first American schools opened during the colonial era. As the
colonies began to develop, many began to institute mandatory
education schemes. In 1642 the Massachusetts Bay Colony made
"proper" education compulsory. Similar statutes were adopted in
other colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. Virtually all of the
schools opened as a result were private. The nation's first
institution of higher learning, Harvard University, opened in
1636. Churches established most early universities in order to
train ministers. Most of the universities which opened between
1640 and 1750 form the contemporary Ivy League, including
Harvard, Yale, Brown, the University of Pennsylvania, and several
others. After the American Revolution, the new national
government passed the Land Ordinance of 1785, which set aside a
portion of every township in the unincorporated territories of
the United States for use in education. The provisions of the law
remained unchanged until the Homestead Act of 1862. After the
Revolution, a heavy emphasis was put on education which made the
US have one of the highest literacy rates at the time.
The school system remained largely private and unorganized until
the 1840s. Education reformers such as Horace Mann of
Massachusetts began calling for public education systems for all.
Upon becoming the secretary of education in Massachusetts in
1837, Mann helped to create a statewide system of
"common-schools", which referred to the belief that everyone was
entitled to the same content in education. These early efforts
focuses primarily on elementary education.
The common-school movement began to catch on. Connecticut adopted
a similar system in 1849, and Massachusetts passed a compulsory
attendance law in 1852. By 1900, however, 31 states required 8-
to 14-year-olds to attend school. As a result, by 1910 72 percent
of American children attended school and half of the nation's
children attended one-room schools. In 1918, every state required
students to at least complete elementary school. Lessons
consisted of students reading aloud from their texts such as the
McGuffey Readers, and emphasis was placed on rote memorization.
Teachers often used physical punishments, such as hitting
students on the knuckles with birch switches, for incorrect
answers. Because the public schools focused on assimilation, many
immigrants, who resisted Americanization, sent their children to
private religious schools. Many of these were Roman Catholics.
Though the new private schools met opposition, in 1925 the
Supreme Court ruled in Pierce v. Society of Sisters that students
could attend private schools to comply with compulsory education
laws.
Secondary education progressed much more slowly, remaining the
province of the affluent and domain of private tutors. In 1870
only 2 percent of 14 to 17-year-olds graduated from high school.
The number rose to 10 percent by 1900, but most were from wealthy
families. The introduction of strict child labor laws and growing
acceptance of higher education in general in the early 20th
century caused the number of high schools and graduates to
skyrocket. Most states passed laws which increased the age for
compulsory attendance to 16.
HIGHER EDUCATION
At the beginning of the 20th century, fewer than 1,000 colleges
with 160,000 students existed in the United States. Explosive
growth in the number of colleges occurred at the end of the 1800s
and early twentieth century. Philanthropists endowed many of
these institutions. Leland Stanford, one of The Big Four, for
example, established Stanford University in 1891.
Many American public universities came about because of the
Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890. During the
rapid westward expansion of the United States during the 19th
century, the federal government took control of huge amounts of
so-called "empty" land (often after forcing the previous Native
American residents into reservations). Under the Morrill Acts,
the federal government offered to give 30,000 acres (121 square
kilometers) of federal land to each state on the condition that they used
the land (or proceeds from its sale) to establish universities.
The resulting schools are often referred to as land-grant
colleges. Founded in 1855, Michigan State University is the
pioneer land-grant institution. Other well-known land-grant
universities include Purdue University (Andrei graduated from Purdue in 1998),
Pennsylvania State University, and the University of California. Two
states, New York and Massachusetts, designated private
universities as their land-grant institutions. Respectively, these
are Cornell University and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Following World War II, the GI Bill paid for the college
education of many former service men, and helped to create a
widespread belief in the necessity of college education and
damaging the belief that higher education was only for the
wealthy. As such, attendance at institutions of higher learning
has grown ever since.
SEGREGATION AND INEQUALITY
For much of its history, education in the United States was
segregated (or even only available) based upon race. For the most
part, African Americans received very little to no education
before the Civil War. In the south where slavery was legal, many
states enacted laws which made it a crime for blacks to even be
able to read, much less attend school alongside white classmates.
After the Civil War and emancipation, blacks still received
little help from the states themselves. The federal government,
under the Radical Republicans, set up the Freedman's Bureau to
help educate and protect former slaves and passed several civil
rights bills, but neither survived the end of Reconstruction in
1877.
After the end of Reconstruction, many southern states began to
enact so-called Jim Crow laws which mandated racial segregation
between blacks and whites. The Supreme Court case of Plessy v.
Ferguson of 1896 legalized the segregation of races as long as
each race enjoyed parity in quality of education (the "separate
but equal" principle). However, very few black students actually
received equal education, often with low funding, outmoded or
dilapidated facilities, and deficient textbooks (often ones
previously used in white schools).
The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s helped overturn
such laws; in 1954 the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of
Education unanimously declared separate facilities inherently
unequal and unconstitutional. The Civil Rights Acts of 1960 and
1964 further helped end the period of segregation. Integration
itself was a long and drawn out issue; although required by law,
the first integrations of minute numbers of black students met
with intense opposition across the south. In 1957 the integration
of Little Rock, Arkansas, had to be enforced by federal troops;
this was after President Dwight D. Eisenhower had federalized the
National Guard, which the governor had called in to prevent
integration. Throughout the 1960s integration continued with
varying degrees of difficulty, including a period of forced
busing, popular during the administration of Richard Nixon.
Although full equality and parity in education would take many
years (many school districts are technically still under the
integration mandates of local courts), technical equality in
education had been achieved by 1970. The actual equality of
education, however, is still often the subject of dispute.
In 1975 Congress passed Public Law 94-142, Education of the
Handicapped Act. One of the most comprehensive laws in the
history of education in the United States, this Act brought
together several pieces of state and federal legislation, making
free, appropriate education available to all eligible students
with a disability. The law was amended in 1986 to extend its
coverage to include younger children. In 1990 the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) extended its definitions
and changed the label "handicap" to "disabilities". Further
procedural changes were amended to IDEA in 1997.
No Child Left Behind (as amended in 2004) was an amendment to the
1997 IDEA legislation. According to the National Center for
Learning Disabilities, "For the nation's 2.9 million students
with identified specific learning disabilities currently
receiving special education services under IDEA, the challenging
new provisions of NCLB create expanded opportunities for improved
academic achievement and documentation of that improved
performance."